Discover the History of the ENIAC Computer

As technology progressed in the early and mid-1900s, the need for enhanced computational speed grew. In response to this deficit, the American military invested half a million dollars to create the ideal computing machine. Who Invented the ENIAC? On May 31, 1943, the military commission for the new computer began with  the partnership of John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert, with the former serving as the chief consultant and Eckert as the chief engineer. Eckert had been a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvanias Moore School of Electrical Engineering when he and Mauchly met in 1943. It took the team about one year to design the ENIAC and then 18 months plus half a million dollars in tax money to build it. The machine wasnt officially turned on until November 1945, by which time the war was over. However, not all was lost, and the military still put ENIAC to work, performing calculations for the design of a hydrogen bomb, weather predictions, cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition, random-number studies, and wind-tunnel design. The ENIAC In 1946, Mauchly and Eckert developed the Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC). The American military sponsored this research because it needed a computer for calculating artillery-firing tables, the settings used for different weapons under varied conditions for target accuracy. As the branch of the military responsible for calculating the tables, the Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL) became interested after hearing about Mauchlys research at the Moore School. Mauchly had previously created several calculating machines and in 1942  began designing a better calculating machine based on the work of John Atanasoff, an inventor who  used vacuum tubes to speed up calculations. The patent for ENIAC was filed in 1947. An excerpt from that patent, (U.S.#3,120,606) filed on June 26, read, With the advent of everyday use of elaborate calculations, speed has become paramount to such a high degree that there is no machine on the market today capable of satisfying the full demand of modern computational methods. What Eas Inside the ENIAC? The ENIAC was an intricate and elaborate piece of technology for the time. Housed within 40 9-foot-tall cabinets, the machine contained 17,468 vacuum tubes  along with 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays, 6,000 manual switches, and 5 million soldered joints. Its dimensions covered 1,800 square feet (167 square meters) of floor space and weighed 30 tons, and running it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. Two 20-horsepower blowers delivered cool air to keep the machine from overheating. The vast extent of energy being used led to a rumor that turning on the machine would cause the city of Philadelphia to experience brownouts. However, the story, which was first reported incorrectly by the Philadelphia Bulletin in 1946, has since been discounted as an urban myth. In just one second, the ENIAC (1,000 times faster than any other calculating machine to date) could perform 5,000 additions, 357 multiplications, or 38 divisions. The use of vacuum tubes instead of switches and relays resulted in the increase in speed, but it was not a quick machine to reprogram. Programming changes would take the technicians weeks, and the machine always required long hours of maintenance. As a side note, research on the ENIAC led to many improvements in the vacuum tube. Contributions of Dr. John Von Neumann In 1948, Dr. John Von Neumann made several modifications to the ENIAC. The ENIAC had performed arithmetic and transfer operations concurrently, which caused programming difficulties. Von Neumann suggested that using switches to control code selection would make it so that pluggable cable connections could remain fixed. He added a converter code to enable serial operation. Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation Eckert and Mauchlys work extended beyond just ENIAC. In 1946, Eckert and Mauchly started the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation. In 1949, their company launched the BINAC (BINary Automatic Computer) that used magnetic tape to store data. In 1950, the Remington Rand Corporation bought the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation and changed the name to the Univac Division of Remington Rand. Their research resulted in the UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer), an essential forerunner to todays computers. In 1955, Remington Rand merged with the Sperry Corporation and formed Sperry-Rand. Eckert remained with the company as an executive and continued with the company when it later merged with the Burroughs Corporation to become Unisys. Eckert and Mauchly both received the IEEE Computer Society Pioneer Award in 1980. The End of the ENIAC Despite its significant advances in computation in the 1940s, ENIACs tenure was short. On October 2, 1955, at 11:45 p.m.,  the power was finally shut off, and the ENIAC was retired. In 1996, precisely 50 years after ENIAC was publicly acknowledged by the government, the massive computer received its place in history. According to the Smithsonian, ENIAC was the center of attention in the city of Philadelphia as they celebrated being the birthplace of computation. ENIAC was ultimately dismantled, with sections of the massive machine on display at both Penn and the Smithsonian.

George Chauncey, Why Marriage - 1245 Words

George Chauncey, Why Marriage?: The History Shaping Today s Debate over Gay Equality, 2004 Nisha Chittal, Judges Chip Away at Florida Gay Marriage Ban, msnbc.com, July 26, 2014 Jeffrey M. Jones, Same-Sex Marriage Support Solidifies Above 50% in U.S., Gallup.com, May 13, 2013 Stonewall Rebellion, www.nytimes.com, Apr. 10, 2009 Goldberg, Carey (February 10, 2000). Vermont Panel Shies From Gay Marriage. New York Times. Retrieved July 13, 2013. https://www.isidewith.com/poll/965633 On June 26,2015, the Supreme Court sided that gay marriage is a right protected by the U.S. Constitution in all 50 states. Previously, to their decision, same sex marriage was already legal in 37 states and†¦show more content†¦The case was later sent to lower court. Voters approved a constitutional amendment to ban same sex marriage. Hawaii gain national attention, over 40 states over the next 10 years will pass the Defense Of Marriage Act (DOMAs). That defines marriage as a legal union between one man and one woman. On September 21, 1996. President Bill Clinton, signed Federal Defense Of Marriage Act into a law. Which define marriage at a federal level between one man and one woman. This meant there would be no recognition in same sex nor federal protection and benefits given to married heterosexual couples. Vermont was the first state to introduce same sex marriage by enacting a statue without being required to do so by a court decision. December 20, 1999, Vermont court ruled in baker v. Vermont that Vermont constitution entitles same sex couples to the same benefits and protections afforded by Vermont law to married opposite sex couples. Between 2005 and Sep. 15, 2010, 14 more states followed suit, bringing the total number of states with constitutional bans on gay marriage to 30. On July 19, 2011, the Obama administration announced that it will be supporting a bill to repeal the Defense Of Marriage Act. Another decision on Feburary 23, 2011, Obama instructed the Justice Department ti stop defending Defense of Marriage act, over concerns that it violates the fifth amendment. On May 9, 2012 President Obama was the first sittingShow MoreRelatedGeorge Chauncey s Gay New York Essay1512 Words   |  7 Pageswriting about George Chauncey’s Gay New York. In this text, George Chauncey seeks to restore that world to history, to chart its geography, and to recapture its culture and politics by challenging three widespread myths about the history of gay life before the rise of the gay movement. These include the myths of isolation, invisibility and internalization. The homosexual community is considered a subculture to the heterosexual community, which identifies as the dominant culture. 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(1.1.1-5) Salerio points out two explanations for the causes

The French Revolution free essay sample

Due to these causes, each revolution had a unique outcome. Prior to these revolutions there were social ideals and issues. Before the American Revolution, different thoughts and interests were developing and causing distance between Britain and the thirteen colonies (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, American Revolution). Along with growing identities, the colonists were used to a great degree of independence. Unlike the American colonists, the people of France were divided into three social classes, or estates. This social system was called the Old Regime.The first estate was made up of clergy of the Catholic Church and the second estate was formed by the wealthy nobles who held high positions in the government. The third estate, however, was the lower class, who had no power to influence the government and resented the upper classes (Beck 652). Social inequality became an important factor leading up the French Revolution. Nonetheless, both revolutions were encouraged by enlightenment ideas, such as life, liberty and property (Beck 641 , 652). We will write a custom essay sample on The French Revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page On both sides of the Atlantic, a Just government was sought after, in which an economic being was ensured. Economic factors also lead to the commencement of both revolutions. After the British government had passed acts, for example the Stamp Act and the Townsend Acts, which required tax stamps on many items and placed taxes on things like glass, paper, and tea. Since Britain was in deep debt after the French and Indian War, it placed acts like such (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, American Revolution). Colonists argued that such taxes violated the colonists natural rights and argued that it was taxation without representation. Since colonists had no representation in parliament, they argued that they could not be taxed.Like the American colonists, the lower class in France was heavily taxed. As a result of King Louis XVI extravagant spending and helping the American colonists in the American Revolution, France was deep in debt (Beck 653). The people who were in the third estate paid about half their income to nobles, the church, and as taxes to the king. This created resentment towards the upper classes and the government (Beck 652). Economical causes of both revolutions also lead into political issues. In 1773 colonists protested against an import tax on tea and dumped a large load of British EAI into the Boston Harbor and was called the Boston Tea Party.King George Ill then closed the Boston port. Colonists formed the Fist Continental Congress in Philadelphia, on 1774, to protest the treatment of Boston. A similar even happened in France prior to the revolution, the National Assembly. Delegates of the third estate, after voting to establish the national assembly, proclaimed the end of absolute monarchy and begin a representative government. Then the Third Estate Delegates pledged to stay in an indoor court until they had drawn up a new constitution, this came known as the Tennis Court Oath.In response to these events, Louis called upon his stationary army. People suggested that he would use military force against the National Assembly. People began to gather their own weapons and created a mob which attacked the Pastille (Beck 654). This act became a major symbol of the beginning of the French Revolution. After the end of each revolution, each had their social outcomes. Once the American Revolution was over, as it was stated in the Declaration of Independence, men were all equal and had rights. However, this did not mean equality for slaves or omen in the colonies.Slaves were still treated as such and women were not given any rights. After the revolutions, in both countries, a mans natural rights were life, liberty, and property. This was claimed in Frances Declaration of Rights of Men. There, social classes were also abolished and that was the end to the Old Regime. However, these were not the only outcomes of the revolutions. Although freedoms were gained in these countries, political concerns aroused. A constitution was ratified in 1781 and it was known as the Articles of Confederation which established the United States as a republic.The Articles, however, created a weak national government that contained Just one body of government, the Congress. This did not last long and a new system of government was created with separate branches, legislative, executive, and Judicial (Beck 644). Also a system of checks and balances that allowed each branch to check the actions of the other two. A federal system was set up to divide the power between national and state governments. The leaders in the new country were those prominent either in the council halls or on the ailed of the Revolution. In France the bourgeois, people of the middle class, emerged as a dominant power. The Directory and a bicameral legislature was set up by the Convention, but the Directory lost control of the political situation in France. In 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte returned from an expedition in Egypt and with the support of the army and many government members, he overthrew the Directory and seized power. Social order and contractual relations were strengthened by the Code of Napoleon, which was a comprehensive system of law (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, French Revolution). The French Revolution free essay sample The French Revolution Kenneth Milton History104 World Civilization 11 Professor Carl Garrigus May 20, 2013 The French Revolution The French Revolution was the greatest event of the modern period. It influenced the whole human society. The whole world received the message of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. It began in the year 1789 and lasted approximately a decade, until the year 1799. The causes of the French Revolution were poverty, the enlightenment, deficit Government spending, and a clash between the established Aristocracy and a rising Bourgeoisie. There were a number of intermediate causes of the French evolution. The most important cause was the continually worsening economic disorder. Financial problems in France had had been worsening for a long time before the revolution. Financial difficulties grew under LouisXIV and LouisXV as they embarked upon ambitious wars and extravagant spending. The Seven Years War crippled France as she lost her colonies to Britain and was economically drained. France had always had a problem with finances, and a monarch was yet to stand up to the upper estates and enforce taxation. We will write a custom essay sample on The French Revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Instead, like every other monarch, LouisXVI carried on the constant loan cycle. â€Å"For some, the French Revolution was a beacon of light that gave a world dominated by Aristocratic privilege and monarchical tyranny a hope of freedom,† (Rosenzweig, 2001). One of the main principles of the Enlightenment, which all of the Philosophers began with and which sums up the whole political philosophy of the eighteenth century was, that it was necessary to substitute simple and elementary rules based on reason and natural law for the complicated and traditional customs which regulated society in their time. France was the classic example of a society rife with, absurd and ridiculous privileges favoring a minority. Hence, the Philosophers were driven towards the notions of natural equality. â€Å"18th century philosophy taught the Frenchman to find his condition wretched, unjust, and illogical and made him disinclined to the patient resignation to his troubles that had long characterized his ancestors†¦. The propaganda of the Philosophies perhaps more than any other factor accounted for the fulfillment of the preliminary condition of the French Revolution, namely discontent with the existing state of things,†(Peyre,1949). The French philosophers therefore sought to rebuild society based on the principles they stood for: Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. Thus the Enlightened were reacting against the worsening social and political situation in France. The Enlightenment brought many changes in the way people viewed Religion and Government. These new ideas and viewpoints were reflected in the French Revolution. Although the revolution did not deliver on all of its promises and ideals, it introduced ideas and forced changes that shaped modern history and politics. The revolution abolished the monarchy and created the French Republic. It launched a string of reforms that gradually stripped the ruling aristocracy of its power, privileges, and property. The French Revolution also introduced several fundamental democratic traditions and tools. There were several social impacts brought on by the French Revolution. Serfdom was abolished across Europe, federal barriers to trade were removed, and the peasants received land. Other social impacts include, Germany unites and reforms its way to a modern capitalist state, the Napoleonic political, social, and cultural impacts code was implemented across Europe, and feudalism was dismantled by Napoleons Graude Army across Europe. France made numerous achievements in the field of art, science, and literature, due to the French Revolution. Numerous schools, colleges, universities, and academies were opened in the country. There was special attention paid to art, literature, science, mathematics, technology, and physical training in the field of education. Technology had a very large impact on the French Revolution. The guillotine, which was used to make the death penalty less painful, was invented during the French Revolution. Other major inventions of that era was the invention of saltpeter, used in gunpowder, balloons using heated air, enabled French armies to get better reconnaissance, development of the telegraph, steam engines, and railroads. Napoleon Bonaparte used these inventions to make speedy and massive invasions. These inventions made it easier for Napoleon’s Empire to maintain control of lands they had conquered. In conclusion, the French Revolution was an important milestone of our modern civilization. It marked the beginning of massive changes that would affect world history. The lasting effects of the French Revolution were felt worldwide. The people’s social rights had been respected, the life of urban and rural workers improved significantly. The Bourgeoisie led the process to ensure their social matters. The French Revolution was caused by Enlightenment ideas, inequality, starvation, poor leadership, overspending, and was highlighted by chaos and the desire for guaranteed rights. Even though there were other revolutions, few were as massive and complex as the French Revolution, which empowered citizens everywhere and resulted in a considerable leap toward the end of oppression throughout Europe. References Peyre, Henri, the Influence of Eighteenth Century Ideas on the French Revolution, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 10, no 1, January, 1949. Rosenzweig, Roy, George Mason University and City University of New York, 2001, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, Retrieved from http://chnm. gmu. edu/revolution/ repository of 600 primary source documents relating to the French Revolution.

Visions Of W.W.I. Essays - Hairdressing, Hairstyle, Suit, Trousers

Visions Of W.W.I. Visions of WWI 1. Compare and contrast the fashions of the W.W.I. with the fashions of W.W.II a. What does hairstyle, length and width of skirts, jewelry, bathing suits, make-up, cigarette smoking, etc. indicate about W.W.I. and W.W.II: During W.W.I the Austrian wore the pike gray 1909 pattern tunic and trousers. They have three white stars on the collar which indicate Sergeants rank. Some have leather gaiters worn by mountain troops; others wore the ordinary trousers with the integral gaiter which fastened around the ankle with two buttons. Men and women wore tunics made of khaki serge flannel or cord. Most men, and some women, also wore leather cartridge pouches and a slouched hat. Women were seen wearing long, more fuller skirts. Blouses usually had a high neck line and the sleeves were full length. Women also wore their hair longer but usually pulled it back into a bun or pony tail. Fashions were very conservative. (p. 36-47, A Photo history of World War I). On the Eastern Front, German infantry wore white coats with fur on the inside. They did this for warmth and camouflage. They wore the field gray cap with black/white and red at the top, and state blockade on the band. The band was red for infantry, black for rifles and artillery, and brown for machine gun battalions. The German Army uniform began to change in 1915. They went from buttoned cuffs to a simple turned back cuff. (p. 36-47, A Photo history of World War I). During W.W.I. tobacco was not frequently used, but drinking tea and whisky was used more for entertainment and relaxation. (p. 125, Over There). During W.W.II. materials were scarce. Skirt hems were much shorter and skirts were more form fitting. The clothes could not have any cuff, ruffles or flap pockets. Pants could be no more than 19 inches wide. There were also shortages of fabric such as silk, rayon and nylon. American women were starting to become fashionable by wearing military hats, men's pants, and patches. Women also stopped wearing large jewelry such as bangles and beads. Short haircuts were considered much safer at work and less trouble. The short hairstyles became popular during the war. Men's suits were rationed and each man was only allowed one suit per year. Men were allowed to only have four cigarettes per day. (p. 150-162, Time Life). The styles during W.W.I were not as conservative as the styles during W.W.II. The styles during W.W.II. indicate a shortage of products which mandated the fashion industry during that era for both men and women. (p 36-47, A Photo history of World War I), (p. 150-162, Time Life). b. How do the fashions of these two periods in history show how our attitudes have changed: The changing of the fashions from W.W.I. to W.W.II. show that men and women were becoming more in tune with fashion. Styles were not as conservative as they used to be. Women were accepting the shorter hairstyles and more form fitting clothes. Women were participating in the war. Men were learning how to clean, and cook meals in the kitchen. Men and women were taking on roles that the other sex would normally do. c. How do the fashions of these two periods reflect war America: The fashions of these two periods reflect war in America by the type of materials that were being used, the availability of the supplies, and how conservative attitudes changed over time. The soft hats, high boots, war metals seen pinned to their jackets, longer coats, long full dresses worn by women reflect the W.W.I war in America. The hard hats, slender fitting clothes, stripes on the collar or sleeve, flashy or low cut costumes worn at parties for entertainment reflect W.W.II. war in America. We can see throughout time, from the changing of styles between W.W.I, and W.W.II that people became more casual. People of W.W.II looked for more ways to have fun, while people from W.W.I were more serious. 4. Life in America during W.W.I and W.W.II a. W.W.I - It was the best of times During the best times in W.W.I. large groups of military men would visit cathedrals and write endless and appreciative accounts of what they had seen or done during